The Aztecs relied on force to collect what from neighboring peoples?

Majestic brotherhood of city states located in key Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries

This article is about the Aztec Empire as a political entity. For Aztec culture, see Aztecs. For Aztec society, see Aztec guild.

Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire) Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān
1428–1521
Aztec glyphs of the member-states of the Aztec Triple Brotherhood (from left to right: Tetzcoco, Tenōchtitlan, and Tlacopan)
Maximum extent of the Aztec Empire
Majuscule	Mexico-Tenochtitlan (de facto)
Common languages	Nahuatl (lingua franca) Besides Otomí, Matlatzinca, Mazahua, Mazatec, Huaxtec, Tepehua, Popoloca, Popoluca, Tlapanec, Mixtec, Cuicatec, Trique, Zapotec, Zoque, Chochotec, Chinantec, Totonac, Cuitlatec, Pame, Mam, Tapachultec, Tarascan, among others
Religion	Aztec polytheism
Authorities	Hegemonic armed forces confederation of centrolineal metropolis-states
Huehuetlatoani of Tenochtitlan
• 1427–1440	Itzcoatl (Alliance founder)
• 1520–1521	Cuauhtémoc (terminal)
Huetlatoani of Texcoco
• 1431–1440	Nezahualcoyotl (Alliance founder)
• 1516–1520	Cacamatzin (concluding)
Huetlatoani of Tlacopan
• 1400–1430	Totoquihuatzin (Brotherhood founder)
• 1519–1524	Tetlepanquetzaltzin (last)
Historical era	Pre-Columbian era Age of Discovery
• Foundation of the alliance[1]	1428
• Spanish conquest	August 13, 1521
Expanse
1520[two]	220,000 km2 (85,000 sq mi)
Population
• early 16th century[three]	5–6 million
Currency	Quachtli (pay with cotton textile by quantity) and cocoa bean equally commodity money
Preceded by Succeeded by Tenochtitlan Tlatelolco Tlacopan Azcapotzalco Colhuacan Tetzcoco Chalco Xochimilco Xoconochco Coixtlahuaca New Spain (Castilian Empire)
Today role of	Mexico
Full listing of monarchs near bottom of page.[4]

The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance (Classical Nahuatl: Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān , [ˈjéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥]) was an alliance of 3 Nahua altepetl metropolis-states: Mexico-Tenochtitlan , Tetzcoco , and Tlacopan . These three city-states ruled that area in and around the Valley of Mexico from 1428 until the combined forces of the Castilian conquistadores and their native allies who ruled under Hernán Cortés defeated them in 1521.

The brotherhood was formed from the victorious factions of a ceremonious war fought between the city of Azcapotzalco and its quondam tributary provinces.^[4] Despite the initial formulation of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed urban center-states, the capital Tenochtitlan became dominant militarily.^[five] By the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the alliance were effectively ruled from Tenochtitlan , while other partners of the brotherhood had taken subsidiary roles.

The brotherhood waged wars of conquest and expanded later its formation. The alliance controlled most of primal United mexican states at its summit, too as some more than distant territories within Mesoamerica, such every bit the Xoconochco province, an Aztec exclave near the present-twenty-four hours Guatemalan edge. Aztec rule has been described past scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect".^[6] The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in ability so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the alliance, as well equally supply military forces when needed for the Aztec state of war efforts. In return, the imperial authorization offered protection and political stability and facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy.

The state religion of the empire was polytheistic, worshiping a various pantheon that included dozens of deities. Many had officially recognized cults large enough so that the deity was represented in the fundamental temple precinct of the capital letter Tenochtitlan . The purple cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica Huitzilopochtli . Peoples were allowed to retain and freely go along their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long as they added the imperial god Huitzilopochtli to their local pantheons.

Etymology and definitions

The word "Aztec" in mod usage would not take been used by the people themselves. Information technology has variously been used to refer to the Aztecs or Triple Alliance, the Nahuatl-speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes (from tlaca).^[7] The proper name comes from the singular Nahuatl word aztecatl (Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈtekat͡ɬ]) that means "[people] from Aztlan", reflecting the mythical identify of origin for Nahua peoples.^{[8] [9]}

History

First page of the Codex Boturini, showing the migration of the Mexica.

Before the Aztec Empire

Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples, who migrated to central Mexico from the northward (mainly centered sparsely around present-day states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Guanajuato) in the early 13th century.^[ten] The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history, as they sought political legitimacy.^[eleven] Pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history say that the empire'southward identify of origin was called Aztlán. Early on migrants settled the Bowl of Mexico and surrounding lands past establishing a series of independent metropolis-states. These early Nahua city-states or altepetl were ruled by dynastic heads called tlahtohqueh (singularly tlatoāni). Most of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples earlier the Mexica migration.^[12]

These early city-states fought diverse pocket-sized-scale wars with each other but no individual city gained dominance due to shifting alliances.^[13] The Mexica were the last of the Nahua migrants to arrive in Primal Mexico. They entered the Basin of United mexican states around the year 1250, and, by then, most of the good agronomical land had already been claimed.^[xiv] The Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan, a pocket-sized metropolis-land only important historically as a refuge of the Toltecs to brand them settle in a relatively infertile patch of land chosen Chapultepec (Chapoltepēc, "in the loma of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served as mercenaries for Culhuacan.^[xv]

Later on the Mexica served Culhuacan in boxing, the ruler appointed one of his daughters to dominion over the Mexica. Mythological native accounts say that the Mexica instead sacrificed her past flaying her pare on the command of their god Xipe Totec.^[16] The ruler of Culhuacan attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force when he learned of this. The Mexica moved to an isle in the middle of Lake Texcoco where an eagle nested on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this every bit a sign from their gods and founded their new city Tenochtitlan on this island in the year ōme calli (or "Two Firm", 1325 Ad).^[iv]

Aztec warfare

The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a armed forces power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power, prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.

The new Mexica metropolis-state allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler Tezozomoc.^[17] Azcapotzalco began to aggrandize into a pocket-sized tributary empire with Mexica assistance. The Mexica ruler was not recognized as a legitimate king until this point. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned 1 of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a daughter to ally into the Mexica line. Their son Acamapichtli was enthroned equally the outset tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1372.^[18]

The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their rule with help from the Mexica, while the Acolhua city of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, state of war erupted between the ii states, and the Mexica played a vital role in the conquest of Texcoco. Past then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major metropolis and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs by receiving Texcoco as a tributary province.^[19]

Mexica warfare was marked by a focus on capturing enemies rather than killing them from its tactics to arms. Capturing enemies was important for religious ritual and provided a means past which soldiers could distinguish themselves during campaigns.^[xx]

Tepanec State of war

In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died,^{[21] [22] [23]} and the resulting succession crunch precipitated a ceremonious war between potential successors.^[xix] The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned equally king. But his son Maxtla before long usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla.^[14]

The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla, and he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments.^[24] Maxtla similarly turned confronting the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the male monarch of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the back up of a dissident Tepanec city called Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to state of war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.^[24]

After the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and, in 1430,^[i] the 3 remaining cities formed a treaty at present known as the Triple Alliance.^[24] The Tepanec lands were carved up among the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in time to come wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests was to exist held by the 3 cities together. A tribute was divided then that two kings of the alliance would get to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco and i would go to Tlacopan. The three kings causeless the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", oftentimes translated as "Emperor") in turn. Each temporarily held a de jure position above the rulers of other city-states ("tlatoani") in this role.^[25]

In the following 100 years, the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan dominated the Valley of Mexico and extended its power to the shores of the Gulf of United mexican states and the Pacific. Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant ability in the alliance. Ii of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers and nephews of Itzcoatl Tlacaelel and Moctezuma. Moctezuma somewhen succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica huetlatoani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created "Cihuacoatl" title, equivalent to something between "Prime number Government minister" and "Viceroy".^{[24] [26]}

Purple reforms

Shortly after the germination of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec land and religion. Information technology has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and that it was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings".^[27] If he ordered book-burnings, information technology would accept been primarily express to documents containing political propaganda from previous regimes. He rewrote the history of the Aztecs thereafter, naturally placing the Mexica in a more fundamental role.^{[ citation needed ]}

After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl equally the Mexica emperor, more than reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities.^[28] Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute arrangement established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population directly, bypassing the say-so of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl too instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting bailiwick kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals.^[29] This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign state. Some rebellious kings were replaced by calpixqueh or appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers.^[29]

Moctezuma issued new laws that separated nobles from commoners and instituted the death penalty for adultery and other offenses.^[xxx] A religiously supervised school was congenital in every neighborhood by royal prescript.^[xxx] Commoner neighborhoods had a school called a "telpochcalli" where they received bones religious pedagogy and military training.^[31] A second, more prestigious type of school called a "calmecac" served to teach the nobility, as well as commoners of high continuing seeking to get priests or artisans. Moctezuma as well created a new championship called "quauhpilli" that could be conferred on commoners.^[28] This title was a form of non-hereditary lesser nobility awarded for outstanding armed forces or civil service (similar to the English language knight). Commoners who received this championship rarely married into imperial families and became kings.^[29]

One component of this reform was the creation of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars. Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized past a stiff preference for capturing live prisoners as opposed to slaughtering the enemy on the battleground, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Flower Wars are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of experienced Aztec warriors equally well as a steady, good for you supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to the gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity collecting prisoners for sacrifice.^{[20] [32]} Native historical accounts say that these wars were instigated by Tlacaelel every bit a means of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Bowl of Mexico from 1450 to 1454.^[33] The blossom wars were mostly waged betwixt the Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala.

Early on years of expansion

Map of the expansion of the empire, showing the areas that have been conquered past the Aztec rulers.^[34]

After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and began to expand across its borders. The offset targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Bowl of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos.^[35] These conquests provided the new empire with a large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods.

Itzcoatl died, and Moctezuma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major four-yr drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided.^[36] Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl connected to expand the empire e towards the Gulf of Mexico and due south into Oaxaca. In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded by his son Axayacatl. Virtually of Axayacatl's xiii-yr reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded quickly and many provinces rebelled.^[14]

Also, as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in Due west Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their male monarch Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl.^[37] In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the region and successfully dedicated it from Purépecha'south attempts to take it back. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers.^[37] Purépecha met them but across the border with l,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over ninety% of the Aztec regular army. Axayacatl himself was wounded in the battle, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in boxing again.^[38]

In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died, and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned every bit the new huetlatoani of Texcoco.^[39] This was followed by the decease of Axayacatl in 1481.^[38] Axayacatl was replaced past his blood brother Tizoc. Tizoc's reign was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Tizoc was likely assassinated past his own nobles 5 years into his rule, patently due to his incompetence.^[38]

Afterward years of expansion

The maximal extent of the Aztec Empire, according to María del Carmen Solanes Carraro and Enrique Vela Ramírez.

Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the commencement part of Ahuitzotl's reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule.^[38] Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Declension. Ahuitzotl conquered the edge city of Otzoma and turned the city into a armed forces outpost due to increased edge skirmishes with the Purépecha.^[40] The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the procedure.^[37] The Purépecha afterward established fortresses nearby to protect confronting Aztec expansion.^[37] Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the Pacific Declension of Guerrero.

By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance.^[41] Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the course of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to use the championship "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan.^[38] The alliance still technically ran the empire. But the Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if not actual seniority.

Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma II in 1502. Moctezuma II spent almost of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors.^[twoscore] In 1515, Aztec armies allowable by the Tlaxcalan full general Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire once again.^[42] The Aztec army failed to take whatsoever territory and was by and large restricted to raiding. The Purépecha defeated them and the army withdrew.

Moctezuma II instituted more royal reforms.^[twoscore] The death of Nezahualcoyotl caused the Mexica Emperors to become the de facto rulers of the brotherhood. Moctezuma II used his reign to endeavor to consolidate ability more closely with the Mexica Emperor.^[43] He removed many of Ahuitzotl'south advisors and had several of them executed.^[40] He also abolished the "quauhpilli" course, destroying the chance for commoners to accelerate to the dignity. His reform efforts were cut short by the Spanish Conquest in 1519.

Spanish conquest

The Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (near armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the trek's commander by the governor of Republic of cuba Diego Velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission.^[44] At the isle of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the trek and translated between Castilian and Mayan. The expedition then sailed due west to Campeche, where, later a brief boxing with the local ground forces, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known also equally Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina]). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan, and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Malinche became Cortés' translator for both language and culture once she learned Castilian, and she was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers. "Rethinking Malinche" by Frances Karttunen is a vital article, examining her office in the conquest and beyond.^[45]

Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a tributary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor Motecuzoma II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. The Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, and Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector.^[46] Cortés afterwards released the tribute collector after persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonac'south idea and that he had no knowledge of it. The Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, having effectively declared war on the Aztecs.^[47] At this time, several of Cortés' soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba.^[48]

The Aztec Empire in 1519.

The Spanish-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek the latter'southward brotherhood against the Aztecs. Even so, the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to exist hostile and attacked. After fighting several close battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their full general to stand down. Cortés so secured an alliance with the people of Tlaxcala and traveled from there to the Basin of Mexico with a smaller company of 5,000-6,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs in add-on to the Spanish soldiers.^[48] During his stay in the city of Cholula, Cortés claims he received word of a planned ambush against the Spanish.^[48] In a pre-emptive response, Cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the master square of the city.

Post-obit the massacre at Cholula, Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were greeted equally guests and given quarters in the palace of former emperor Axayacatl.^[49] Later on staying in the city for six weeks, 2 Spaniards from the group left backside in Veracruz were killed in an altercation with an Aztec lord named Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an excuse to have Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force.^[48] Motecuzoma connected to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Cortés for several months. A second, larger Spanish expedition so arrived in 1520 under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Before against Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and bring together Cortés.^[48]

Cortés was away from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, while his second-in-command Pedro de Alvarado massacred a grouping of Aztec dignity, in response to a ritual of human cede honoring Huitzilopochtli.^[48] The Aztecs retaliated past attacking the palace where the Castilian were quartered. Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. Notwithstanding, by this signal, the ruling quango of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor.^[49] 1 of the Aztec soldiers struck Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone, and he died several days later, though the exact circumstances of his decease are unclear.^[49]

The Spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known as the "Lamentable Nighttime" or La Noche Triste, realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following Moctezuma's expiry. Spaniards and their Indian allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their way out of the city with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded downwards with gold.^[fifty] They retreated to Tlacopan (at present Tacuba) and made their way to Tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the second, successful assail on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hit Tenochtitlan. The outbreak alone killed more than 50% of the region's population, including the emperor Cuitláhuac, as the indigenous of the New Globe had no previous exposure to smallpox.^[51] The new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, while Cortés raised an ground forces of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec dominion. Cortés marched back to the Basin of Mexico with a combined ground forces of upward to 100,000 warriors.^[48] The overwhelming majority of warriors were indigenous rather than Spanish. Cortés captured various indigenous city-states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, including the other capitals of the Triple Brotherhood, Tlacopan and Texcoco. Texcoco, in fact, had already become firm allies of the Spaniards and the urban center-country and subsequently petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest like to Tlaxcala.^[52]

Cortés used boats synthetic in Texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to Tenochtitlan for a menses of several months.^[48] Somewhen, the Spanish-led army assaulted the city both past boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. The attackers took heavy casualties, although the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the process. Cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee the city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a period of several years before finally executing him in 1525.^[53]

Government

The Aztec Empire was an case of an empire that ruled by indirect ways. It was ethnically very diverse like about European empires just was more a organization of tributes than a single unitary form of government different them. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J. Motyl, the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not merits supreme say-so over its tributary provinces. It merely expected to pay tributes.^[54] The empire was too territorially discontinuous, i.e. land did not connect all of its dominated territories. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can exist seen in the fact that by and large local rulers were restored to their positions once they conquered their city-state, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs every bit long as the tribute payments were fabricated.^[55]

The form of government is often referred to as an empire, nevertheless almost areas within the empire were, in fact, organized as city-states (individually known as altepetl in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were modest polities ruled past a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plurally tlatoque) from an aloof dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and contest among altepeme. After the Nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient function of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire'south hegemonic class of control.^[56]

The term "Aztec empire" is actually modern and not 1 used by the Aztecs themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core composed of 3 Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the densely populated Valley of United mexican states. Asymmetries of power elevated one of those urban center states Tenochtitlan in a higher place the other ii overtime. The "Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of smashing linguistic and cultural diversity. The Nahuas performed assistants of the empire through largely traditional, indirect means. Something of a nascent bureaucracy, however, may have been beginning to class overtime insofar, as the state organization became increasingly centralized.

Central assistants

Earlier the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation forth traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by tlatoani (lit., "speakers"), who supervised hamlet headmen, who in plow supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey Tlatoani (lit., "great speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility.^[57]

However the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with the external bug of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of the Huey tlatoani. It was the part of the Cihuacoatl to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was e'er a shut relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the blood brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title "Cihuacoatl", which means "female ophidian" (it is the name of a Nahua deity), and the part of the position, somewhat analogous to a European Viceroy or Prime Government minister, reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, yet both did accept of import ritual tasks. Those of the former were associated with the "female" moisture season, those of the latter with the "male" dry season. While the position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position likewise existed the nearby altepetl of Azcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and Tenochtitlan's ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser condition of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, every bit in the example of Tlacaelel.^{[58] [59]}

Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a iv-member military and advisory Council which assisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl;^[sixty] and the tlillancalqui. This design non only provided advise for the ruler, information technology also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, every bit henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the council. Moreover, the actions of whatever ane member of the quango could easily be blocked past the other three, providing a simple organization of checks on the ambition higher officials. These four Quango members were also generals, members of various military machine societies. The ranks of the members were not equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the ii near prestigious military machine societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and the otontin ("Otomies").^{[61] [62]} The tetecuhtin, the relatives of the former Huey tlatoani, will choose the next Huey tlatoani from the four council members.^[63]

Provincial administration

Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed past hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the organization evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced past other officials. The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular calpixqui, plural calpixque) were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the organization of the country into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this organisation. The 38 tributary provinces fell nether the supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque, whose dominance extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of the provincial tribute system which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not past the huetlatoani, only rather past a separate position altogether: the petlacalcatl. On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, the Nahuas placed a military machine governor, or cuauhtlatoani, at the head of provincial supervision.^[64] During his reign, Moctezuma I elaborated the calpixque system, with two calpixque assigned per tributary province. The province itself stationed one, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Commoners drew the tribute, the macehualtin, and distributed to the dignity, be they 'kings' (tlatoque), lesser rulers (teteuctin), or provincial dignity (pipiltin).^[65]

The Nahuas supervised the tribute collection by the above officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec war machine, but also upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local nobility who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known equally pochteca. These pochteca had diverse gradations of ranks which granted them certain trading rights and so were not necessarily pipiltin themselves, even so they played an important part in both the growth and assistants of the Aztec tributary system nonetheless. The pochteca strongly tied their ability, political and economic, to the political and military power of the Aztec dignity and state. In addition to serving as diplomats (teucnenenque, or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, higher-ranking pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to sure degree autonomous corporate groups, having administrative duties within their own estate.^{[66] [67]}

Ideology and land

The Nahuas placed Techcatl, the Aztec sacrifice altar, in the sacrifice paving, and the courtyard on the south side of Huēyi Teōcalli.

Rulers, if they are local teteuctin or tlatoani, or cardinal Huetlatoani, were seen equally representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right. Tlatocayotl, or the principle of rulership, established that descent inherited this divine correct. Political society was, therefore, likewise a catholic order, and to kill a tlatoani was to transgress that social club. For this reason, whenever the Nahuas killed or otherwise removed a tlatoani from their station, their stead typically placed a relative and member of the same bloodline. The establishment of the office of Huetlatoani understood through the creation of some other level of rulership, hueitlatocayotl, standing in superior dissimilarity to the lesser tlatocayotl principle.^[68]

A militaristic estimation of Nahua religion, specifically a devout veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli, guided expansion of the empire. Militaristic state rituals were performed throughout the year co-ordinate to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock battles.^[69] The time period they lived in was understood equally the Ollintonatiuh, or Lord's day of Motility, which was believed to have been the final age subsequently which humanity would exist destroyed. Information technology was nether Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli causeless his elevated part in the country pantheon and who argued that information technology was through blood sacrifice that the Sunday would be maintained and thereby stave off the end of the globe. It was nether this new, militaristic interpretation of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged to fight wars and capture enemy soldiers for sacrifice. Though blood sacrifice was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human being sacrifice under the Aztecs was probable unprecedented in the region.^[lxx]

Schematic of hierarchy

Executive & Armed forces	Tribute Arrangement	Judicial System	Provincial Arrangement
Huetlatoani, the paramount or external ruler Cihuacoatl, the lesser or internal ruler Council of Four, an advisory body of generals and source of future Huetlatoani Tlacochcalcatl Tlacateccatl Ezhuahuacatl [60] Tlillancalqui Armed services societies Cuachicqueh, or Shorn Ones Cuāuhtli, or Eagle Knights Ocēlōmeh, or Jaguar Warriors Otōntin, or Otomies	Petlacalcatl, central head of tribute Huecalpixque, provincial overseers of tribute Calpixque, pairs of tribute administrators	Supreme Courtroom Special Courts Appellate Courts Pochteca Courts Pochteca agents	Tlatoani, a subordinate ruler of a province, otherwise ruled past a: Cuauhtlatoani, a military governor Heads of Calpōlli wards Heads of households within calpōlli wards who served as corvée labor

Provincial structure

Aztec Empire territorial organisation in 1519

Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose brotherhood between iii cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the virtually inferior partner, Tlacopan. As such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very common in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were ever fluctuating. All the same, over fourth dimension, Tenochtitlan assumed paramount authority in the alliance, and although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed by their own Huetlatoani, Tenochtitlan became the largest, nigh powerful, and most influential of the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged centre of empire.^[71]

Though the Aztecs did not describe them this manner, there were substantially two types of provinces: Tributary and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially subordinate client states which provided tribute or assist to the Aztec state nether "mutual consent." Tributary provinces, on the other manus, provided regular tribute to the empire; obligations on the part of Tributary provinces were mandatory rather than consensual.^{[72] [73]}

Arrangement of the Aztec Empire [72] [73]
The Triple Alliance	Provinces
Tenōchtitlān, modern Mexico City Texcoco, mod Texcoco municipality Tlacopan, also mod Mexico City Nahuatl glyphic for Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan.	Tributary Provinces	Strategic Provinces
	Atotonilco de Pedraza Atotonilco el Grande Axocopan Cihuatlan Coixtlahuaca Cotaxtla Cuahuacan Cuauhnāhuac, modernistic Cuernavaca Cuilapan Huatusco Huaxtepec, or Oaxtepec Malinalco Mictlān Ocuilan Oxitipan Quiauhteopan Soconusco Tepeaca Tepecoacuilco Tlachco, or Taxco Tlacozauhtitlan Tlapacoyan Tlapan Tlatlauhquitepec Tlaxiaco Tochpan, or Tuxpan Tōchtepēc, or Tuxtepec Tollocan, mod Toluca Tzicoac Xilotepec Xocotilan Yoaltepec, or Yautepec	Acatlan Ahautlan Ayotlan Chiapan Chiauhtlan Cuauhchinanco Huexotla Ixtepexi Ixtlahuaca Miahuatlan Misantla Ocuituco Tecomaixtlahuacan Tecpantepec Temazcaltepec Teozacoalco Teozapotlán Tetela del Río Tetela Xalapa Cēmpoalātl, or Zempoala Zompaynco

List of rulers

Tenochtitlan		Texcoco	Tlacopan
Huetlatoani Ācamāpichtli, r. 1367–1387 Huitzilihuitl, r. 1391–1415 Chīmalpopōca, r. 1415–1426 Itzcōhuātl, r. 1427–1440 Motēuczōma Ilhuicamīna, r. 1440–1468 Axayacatl, r. 1469–1481 Tizocic, r. 1481–1486 Āhuizotl, r. 1486–1502 Motēuczōma Xocoyotzin, r. 1502–1520 Cuitlāhuac, r. 1520 Cuāuhtemōc, r. 1521–1524	Cihuacoatl Tlacaelel, r. c. 1426–1487 Tlilpotonqui, r. 1487–1503 Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl, r. 1503–1520 Matlatzincatzin, r. 1520 Tlacontzin, r. 1521–1524 Tlacontzin was baptised don Juan Velásquez and made ruler nether Cortés, r. 1524–1526	Huetlatoani Quinatzin Tlaltecatzin, r. ? Techotlalatzin, r. 1357 or 1377–1409 Ixtlilxochitl Ome Tochtli, r. 1409–1418 Nezahualcoyōtl, r. 1431–1472 Nezahualpilli, r. 1473–1515 Cacamatzin, r. 1516–1520 Coanacoch, r. 1521–1524 Tecocoltzin, r. 1524–1525	Huetlatoani Aculnahuacatl Tzaqualcatl, r. c. 1400–1430 Totoquihuaztli I, r. c. 1430–1469 Chimalopopoca, r. 1469–1489 Totoquihuaztli Ii, r. 1489–1519 Tetlepanquetzaltzin, r. 1519–1524

^{[74] [75] [76]}

Mythological nature rulers

These are Aztec gods and goddesses, who were as well part of the Thirteen Heavens, as well as the Aztec Empire.

Gods

• Centeotl, god of maize associated with the Tianquiztli (goddesses of the Pleiades). Centeotl's proper noun is also spelt every bit Cinteotl and was like a goddess.
• Chalchiuhtotolin, the god of cleanse and contamination, absolve human of guilt, and overcoming god of fate.
• Xochipilli, god of flowers, pleasure, feasting, frivolity and artistic inventiveness.
• Huehuecoyotl, god of old-historic period, origin, and charade. He is as well the patron of wisdom, followed past his tricks and foolings. His name is similar to the god of happiness, Ueuecoyotl.
• Huitzilopochtli, god of will and the state of war, patron god of force, ruler of the Southward.
• Itztlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli, god of frost, ice, common cold, winter, sin, punishment and homo misery. He is likewise the god of blindfolded justice.
• Ometecuhtli, god of duality and substance.
• Itztli, god of rock who is a variant of Tezcatlipoca.
• Mictlantecuhtli, god of the Underworld (Mictlan). He is extremely skeleton with bonus horror bits; particularly his exposed liver which dangles cheekily from his breast crenel.
• Patecatl, god of healing and patron god of doctors and peyote. He is the Centzontotochtin'southward male parent.
• Piltzintecuhtli, god of the visions and the sun. In Aztec mythology Piltzintecuhtli is associated with Mercury and also healing.
• Quetzalcoatl, god of life, the light and wisdom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of the West.
• Tecciztecatl, god of the moon. Tecciztecatl is Tlaloc and Chalchiuhtlicue'southward son.
• Tepeyollotl, god of the animals, darkened caves, echoes and earthquakes. Tepeyollotl is a variant of Tezcatlipoca and is associated with mountains.
• Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, the darkness and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the Due north. Tezcatlipoca had overthrew Quetzalcoatl, who overthrew him in return.
• Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, god of dawn (Venus) and attribute of Quetzalcoatl.
• Tlaloc, god of pelting, lightning and thunder. He is associated with fertility and agriculture.
• Tonacatecuhtli, god of sustenance associated with Ometecuhtli.
• Tonatiuh, god of the sun.
• Xipe Totec, god of rejuvenation, vegetation and spring, lord of the seasons, ruler of the E.
• Xiuhtecuhtli, god of burn down and fourth dimension.
• Ehecatl, god of wind.
• Tzontemoc, god who resided in ane of the nine layers of the Underworld.
• Xolotl, god of death, associated with Venus as the Evening Star. He is the twin god, and a double of Quetzalcoatl.
• Mixcoatl, aztec god of fishing and hunting and old god of hurricanes and storms who is associated with the Milky Way.
• Nanahuatzin, god sun. Nanahuatzin sacrificed himself in a burning fire so that the sun should continue to smoothen all over the world, and then the god Tonatiuh took his place.
• Atlahua, god of water and protector of archers and fishermen. The Aztecs prayed to him when in that location were deaths in water.
• Opochtli, god of fishing and birdcatchers. Apparently, he is the discoverer of the harpoon and cyberspace.
• Painal, Huitzilopochtli's messenger.
• Techlotl, god who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. This deity was associated with owls.
• Ometochtli, god of pulque and leader of the Centzontotochtin.

Goddesses

Coyolxauhqui killed later on she tried kill her mother disc, cede paving in the courtyard on the due south side, Huēyi Teōcalli ruins.

• Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of running water, lakes, rivers, oceans, streams, horizontal waters, storms and baptism.
• Chantico, goddess of fire, homes and volcanoes.
• Cihuacoatl, goddess of childbirth and picker of souls.
• Citlalicue, goddess of female stars in the Milky Fashion.
• Itzpapalotl, goddess of death. She was the leader of the Tzitzimitl. Rock knives pop out from her eyes.
• Mayahuel, goddess of agave and maguey. She was the Centzontotochtin's mother.
• Mictecacihuatl, goddess of the Underworld (Mictlan).
• Tlaltecuhtli, old goddess of earth (changed in the Earth's landscape and temper).
• Tlazolteotl, goddess of lust, passions, carnality, and sexual misdeeds.
• Xochiquetzal, goddess of flowers, honey, pleasure and dazzler. She Serves as a protector of young mothers, and is always young and pretty.
• Atlatoman, patron goddess of those who are born with physical deformities or those unfortunate Mexica who have suffered from open up sores. Some codexes have likewise thought this deity as the cause of these ailments.
• Huixtocihuatl, goddess of salt and patron of cultivated foods (including people in the salt merchandise).
• Chalmecacihuatl, goddess who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. She was Tzontemoc's wife.
• Chicomecoatl, goddess of agriculture.
• Coyolxauhqui, goddess or leader of the Centzonhuitznahua, associated with the moon.

Mythological nature groups

• Cihuateteo, (Cihuacoatl) the malevolent spirits of women who died in childbirth. Their proper name comes from the goddess Cihuacoatl. Their proper noun is besides spelt as "Ciuateteo". (Goddesses)
• Ahuiateteo, gods of excess and pleasance, the gods who are known as Macuilcozcacuauhtli, Macuilcuetzpalin, Macuilmalinalli, Macuiltochtli, and Macuilxochitl. (Gods)
• Ixcuiname, goddesses of the carnality. (Goddesses)
• Cinteteo, gods of the maizes. (Gods)
• Centzontotochtin, (Ometochtli) gods of pulque. (Gods)
• Xiuhtotontli, the gods of fire (alternative manifestations or states of Xiuhtecuhtli). (Gods)
• Ehecatotontli, (Ehecatl) breath-belongings gods of the breezes — who are merely similar Ehecatl. (Gods)
• Civateteo, (Cihuacoatl) goddesses who are vampires. Civateteo are similar to Cihuateteo, who are not as bad every bit Civateteo are. Civateteo mostly live in regular Mexico, and Civateteo come from somewhere vampire-esque. (Goddesses)
• Tzitzimitl, (Itzpapalotl) goddesses of the stars. Tzitzimitl by and large live in regular United mexican states, and Tzitzimitl come from Tamoanchan. (Goddesses)
• Centzonmimixcoa, (Cuahuitlicac) 400 gods of the northern stars and "The 400 Northerners." (gods)
• Centzonhuitznahua, (Coyolxauhqui) 400 gods of the southern stars. (Gods)
• Tlaloque, gods of rain, weather and mountains. Tlaloc had likewise been considered the ruler of this motley grouping. (Gods)
• Tianquizli, (Citlalicue) these are goddesses of the Pleiades. (Goddesses)
• Ometeotl, gods of the duality. (Gods)
• Tezcatlipocas, creator god'south. (Gods)
• Tonalleque, embodied spirits who died during the Battle (Gods)

Sacred places

• Tamoanchan, a place where Itzpapalotl unremarkably rules over. The gods created the outset of the present homo race out of sacrificed blood and ground human bones. Tamoanchan may mean "Nosotros go down to our home."
• Mictlan, the place where Mictlantecuhtli and Mictecacihuatl rule over in aztec mythology. This is literally the Underworld.

Law

Ruler Nezahualcoyotl adult the most adult code of law in the city-state of Texcoco nether him. It was a formal written code, not simply a drove of customary practices. The sources for knowing about the legal code are colonial-era writings by Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada, and Texcocan historians Juan Bautista Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. The law lawmaking in Texcoco nether Nezahualcoyotl was legalistic, every bit many tried cases by item types of evidence and many disregarded the social status of the litigants, and consisted of 80 written laws. These laws called for severe, publicly administered punishments, creating a legal framework of social control.^[77]

Much less is known most the legal organisation in Tenochtitlan, which might exist less legalistic or sophisticated as those of Texcoco for this menstruum.^[78] Those under the reign of Moctezuma I established information technology. These laws served to plant and govern relations between the state, classes, and individuals. State regime meted out punishments solely. The Nahuas enshrined Nahua mores in these laws, criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness, and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions against theft, murder, and property damage. As stated before, pochteca could serve as judges, often exercising judicial oversight of their own members. Likewise, military machine courts dealt with both cases within the war machine and without during wartime. There was an appeal process, with appellate courts continuing between local, typically market-identify courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court and ii special higher appellate courts at Tenochtitlan. One of those two special courts dealt with cases arising within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from exterior the capital. The ultimate judicial say-so laid in hands of the Huey tlatoani, who had the right to appoint lesser judges.^[79]

See also

• Aztec
• Aztec mythology
• Aztec philosophy
• Aztec religion
• Aztec club
• Crónica Mexicayotl
• Flower war
• List of Aztec gods and supernatural beings
• List of rulers of Texcoco
• Listing of Tenochtitlan rulers
• List of Tlatelolco rulers
• Mesoamerica
• Nahuas

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "El tributo a la Triple Alianza". Arqueología Mexicana. 14 February 2017.
2. ^ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 497. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Retrieved seven September 2018.
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26. ^ The term cihuācōātl literally means "woman-snake" or "female snake" and the origin of this designation is not well understood. The position was certainly non reserved for women, although the title may possibly propose a metaphoric dichotomy between the "masculine" Tlahtoāni dealing with external royal diplomacy and the "feminine" Cihuācōātl managing domestic affairs.
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Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aztec.

Primary sources

• Berdan, Frances F.; Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1997). The Essential Codex Mendoza. Academy of California Printing. ISBN978-0-520-20454-6.

• Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1576), Cambridge, MA, Da Capo Printing, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81319-Ten.
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Secondary sources

• Calnek, Edward (1978). R. P. Schaedel; J. E. Hardoy; N. S. Kinzer (eds.). Urbanization of the Americas from its Beginnings to the Present . pp. 463–470.
• Davies, Nigel (1973). The Aztecs: A History. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Evans, Susan T. (2008). Ancient Mexico and Cardinal America: Archeology and Culture History, second edition. Thames & Hudson, New York. ISBN978-0-500-28714-nine.
• Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Royal Expansion and Political Control. University of Oklahoma Printing. ISBN0-8061-2121-ane.
• Leon-Portilla, Miguel (1963). Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Náhuatl Mind. University of Oklahoma Printing.
• Pollard, H. P. (1993). Tariacuri's Legacy. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Smith, Michael (1984). "The Aztec Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?". Ethnohistory. 31 (three): 153–168. doi:10.2307/482619. JSTOR 482619.
• Smith, Michael (2009). The Aztecs, 2d Edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-0-631-23015-1.
• Smith, M. E. (2001). "The Archaeological Study of Empires and Imperialism in Pre-Hispanic Central United mexican states". Journal of Anthropological Archeology. 20 (3): 245–284. doi:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372.
• Soustelle, Jacques, The Daily Life of the Aztecs. Paris, 1955; English edition, 1964.

External links

• https://www.azteccalendar.com/god/
• https://world wide web.godchecker.com/aztec-mythology/

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Empire

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